the social conquest of earth

the social conquest of earth

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1.谁能帮我写一篇500字的英语论文：the growth of english in china in fifty years

2.A history of the English language

谁能帮我写一篇500字的英语论文：the growth of english in china in fifty years

       The Growth of English Language

       A learner of English even a native may wonder why the spelling and pronunciation of English words bear much resemblance to that of German’s or why it has a great ocean of synonyms. And when he happens to meet with a sentence like “he haefd an swithe aenlic wif.” He might not be sure if it is English or not. Therefore it may be helpful for those who want to undertake a deeper study of English to get a general idea of the shift of the language.

       This paper divides the growth into four periods:

       Anglo-saxon (450-1150)

       Middle English (1150-1500)

       Modern English (1500-1900)

       Present- day English (1900-)

       (And more stress will be given on neologism on present day English through some social facts.)

       Though it is not possible to fix the precise dates of the change from on step to another, the shift of the English language kept pace very closely with the progress of English history and development of English literature.

       Let’s begin with the visit of islands by Juliss Caesar 55BC.Romans invaded the Land on which the ancestors of Scottish Irish Wales called Britons inhabited. And Roman mode of life also came cross to the British Island. Roman theaters and baths quickly rose in towns. Their refinements of civilization however did not affect Britons very much. They still spoke various Celtic languages and were treated like slaves. The Roman occupation lasted 400 years. During the period Britons fought bravely with their invaders and at the beginning of 15th C. the Roman Empire was declining.

       In 410 AD Conquerors went back and left Latin alphabet behind that replaced the runic symbols.

       After the departure of the Romans about 450AD some Germanic tribes of Anglo-saxons and Jutes invaded southern and western parts of England from north Germany, and northern region was occupied by Scandinavians from across North Sea. These tribes together brought their language called Teutonic which was the base of old English. In the earliest period of the old English there were four main regional dialects:Northumbrians,Mercian,West saxon and Kentissh, which were spoken over all England outside of Wales, over all the low land of Scotland and over a great part of Ireland.

       Like German the old English had a highly developed system of endings to show case number, and tense. For example, a noun, in old English has four cases which lead to various forms according to its use:stan(stone)-stanes-stane stonas-stane and stantum. In addition to this the spelling and meaning of some words are quite different from that of modern English, “syle” in old English means “give” and now means “sell”, “on” means “in”, “into” means “on”, “of” means “from” in old English.

       By 6th century, the introduction of Christianity into England made contribution of new Latin words to old English by Roman missionaries. These words mostly dealt with religion such as candle, priest, and temple. Though daily dealings with those tribes from Demark, Norway, the Anglo-saxon also adopted such words as egg, sky, sister, and they, them, even the “are” of the verb “to be”.

       In 1066 the Norman conquest made a division between old English and Middle English. When these French speaking Normans conquered the Anglo-saxon England, she was already in a state of transition from tribal organization towards feudal system. Norman reinforced this and brought in many new laws social customs and literary ideals. More than ten thousand French words were introduced into English, covering government, the church the army, and many other fields. As a result of this English has an extremely rich vocabulary with a great ocean of synonyms.

       Owing partially to Scandinavian inroads, partially to the Norman conquest, and partly to the natural progress, the Anglo-saxon dropped its inflections and changed its syntax to such an extent that it began to resemble modern English. Though there were not much literature works available of the period to show the resemblance the passage from Layamon’s BRUT will give a good idea of it.

       Thenne cumeth the wulf wilde: toward hire winden

       Then comes the wolf wild, toward her tracks.

       Though the wulf beon one, buten aels imane

       Though the wolf be one, without all company

       And ther weoren in one lopken:fif hundred gaten

       And threw re in one fold five hundred goats

       The wulf heom to iviteth and alle heom abiteth

       The wolf them to cometh and all the biteth.

       The process of the change went on with greatly increased rapidity during the period (1150-1500)which we call the Middle English period. The language continued to lose its inflections and also aquired lots of French words. On the whole the process was from chaotic to systematic. In general character, and also in most of its details it became so like modern English that it may be read with comparative ease by one who has no knowledge of Anglo-saxon as we can see in the following passage from LANGLAND’S Vision of piers plowman:

       Ac on a may morwening

       On malveern hills

       Me bfel a ferly,

       Of fairy me to rest

       Under a brood bank,

       By a burn’s side,

       And was I lay and learned,

       And looked on the waters

       I slombered into a sleeping,

       It swayed so mury,

       Then gan I meten

       A morvellous sweven,

       Wist I never where.

       And also during this period, a great change in English vowels, called the Great vowel Shift, played a very significant role in the development of the language. For most English vowels were affected, which brought about the most characterisc difference between Chaucerian pronunciation and that of today. The two long vowels <i>; and <u>; were diphthongized and other long volwels became broader longer as indicated bellow:

       Chauser’s chauser’s Shakespeare present day

       Spelling pro. Pro. Pro. Spelling

       Deel del. Del dil deal

       Name nam nm neim name

       Hous hus hous haus house

       Apart from the shift of sounds we also have the great and important change in sentence structure and forms of word. As the inflectional endings were in the state of having lost, word-order became more important than that in old English.

       Such a simple old English sentence as “Us gelicap seglung” to us “pleases sailing” naturely became “We like sailing.” Here the case of pronoun has been shifted from dative to nominative and grammatical subject refers not to the action but to the agent. A still more striking example of this shift of grammatical subject to the beginning of the sentence with proper change in position though not in form of the pronoun, is seen in such a sentence as “He was given the boat.” For old English “Him waes gegiefen se bat” to him was given the boat, where “bat”(boat) is grammatical subject which in present day English became retained object.

       Between Middle English and modern English we can not find a clear division as Norman Conquest made between old English and middle English but by the 16th century the language had already taken on look of modern English. The most remarkable feature in the development of modern English is the increase of its vocabulary AS a result of Renaissance a large number of Latin-loan words were brought into English. And due to the trade with all parts of the world many loan-words are the names of foreign products, such words are “tea” from china “potato” from Haiti through Spanish, etc. Later in modern English period science and speedy developed modern society began to exert a great influence on English particularly in vocabulary.

       From the growth we came to see that English as a social phenomenon never ceases to change and this is especially true with the language we are speaking now. We may be offered a more clear conception by some facts.

       After World War I great changes had taken place in English society, economics science and technology. Advanced science brought considerable influence on the mode of people’s life and reformed environment . It’s no doubt that all this would reflect in the language.

       In our society the advancement of science and technology is so remarkable that the steam locomotive has already become the living specimen in museum. Even when a transistor radio is put next to a T.V. set it seems old or somewhat out of date. And people would name it steam radio. So the word” steam” is considered as a symbol of oldness. This provides us with an adequate idea that those words formerly were associated with past have to adopt themselves to the new situation. If there is none they have to be created. So now we have new expressions of old words as well as new words created from new situation. The word anti-social, is not a new word itself. Since it was created in 18th century the meaning of it has changed three times. Primarily it meant inharmonious with society” or unwilling to be with others”. In 19th century it came to mean “to be against the principle of new society” But now we refer to those who are incompatible to the public interest.

       As the criterion of moral is in the state of progressing when people speak of “conscience” they will have “social conscience” in the back of their minds.

       In this modern and industrialized world, some industrial terms have widely spread over the other fields. Today we may hear people saying that “we should step up the output of graduates or they are the end products from the university.”

       The word “processing” generally refers to the changing of characteristic of something through a systematic physical or chemical method. But now it is so widely used that it has encroached upon its unusual usage. It can be picked up to describe any action that goes back and forth or any action that causes the change. When an officer in the airport says: “process passengers” he means to lead the passengers to go through all procedures.

       The experiment in nuclear weaponry turned out a very interesting accidental product-bikini, new English-Chinese dictionary gives a clear definition-a very small 2 piece swimming suit for women covering only tiny parts of body”. As matter of fact the word bikini derived from the name of a coral island in Pacific Ocean, on which an atom bomb was experimented in 1946. Then what is the relationship between these two different objects? This may be puzzling, but in fact the explanation is quite simple: The charm of a beautiful young girl with an erectness of carriage in this kind of swimming suit would immediately arouse the emotional excitement of those young men who catch the sight of her. And such excitement is so strong that can be compared to the explosion of atom bomb. This is invention must owe to those admen for they have such talented skill that makes something banal miracle.

       During this warfare century, it’s most likely that with warlike nature man has found a very ideal field to probe space in competitive manner. Now they have taken their first step. In order to meet the needs of the new subject of the space navigation a group of new technical terms has to be brought into being. This new subject relies on the Rocketry. At present space men are continued to the orbit round the earth, but they wish to build a space platform or space station from which they can make journey to other planate. And when we are watching a play of space navigation we call it a space opera.

       The word “pre-war” also is changed in its use. For some time in the past it referred to the time before 1914, but the World War II affected it. Therefore now it tells the time before 1939. For the sake of avoiding confusion we usually use the term “inter-war years” to mean the time between 1918 and 1939. The functions of the word have been expanded too. For a long time it is utilized as an adjective as in the sentence “He made fortune in pre-war years.” It is also taken as an adverb as in sentence “Pre-war he could hardly exist”.

       And now we come to a new era, the era of e- and dot com. So we have now a great number of newly coined words that are utilized in our daily life. According to Barnhart Dictionary Companion they can collect 1500-1600 new words yearly. You could almost put an e-to anything that then would be associated with electronic; the most popular one might be e-mail that has already become a part of our life. As Internet is widely accepted people are gradually relying on it. One graduated in an e-school may sit at home engaging in e-lancer economy through e-business while using an e-bank.

       All these examples have proved that language is closely related to the society in which it is spoken. The language develops as the society moves forward. Therefore an English learner who has desire to gain a real mastery of the language, is well advised to obtain a general knowledge of the growth of the language and adapt himself to the changing language in the changing society.

       Notes :

       1.“He had a very incomparable wife.”

       2.And on a May morning

       On Malvern hills

       Me befell a wonder

       If fair me thought.

       I was worn out with wandering

       And went me to rest

       Under a broad bank

       By a stream’s side:

       And so I lay and leaned

       And looked on the waters

       I slumbered into a sleeping

       It sounded so pleasant

       Then began I to meet

       A marvelous dream,

       That I was in a wilderness

       Knew I not where.

A history of the English language

       看看是不是这篇 A Brief History of the English Language English is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. This broad family includes most of the European languages spoken today. The Indo-European family includes several major branches: Latin and the modern Romance languages (French etc.); the Germanic languages (English, German, Swedish etc.); the Indo-Iranian languages (Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit etc.); the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish, Czech etc.); the Baltic languages of Latvian and Lithuanian; the Celtic languages (Welsh, Irish Gaelic etc.); Greek . The influence of the original Indo-European language can be seen today, even though no written record of it exists. The word for father, for example, is vater in German, pater in Latin, and pitr in Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in different languages that share the same root. Of these branches of the Indo-European family, two are, as far as the study of the development of English is concerned, of paramount importance, the Germanic and the Romance (called that because the Romance languages derive from Latin, the language of ancient Rome). English is a member of the Germanic group of languages. It is believed that this group began as a common language in the Elbe river region about 3,000 years ago. By the second century BC, this Common Germanic language had split into three distinct sub-groups: East Germanic was spoken by peoples who migrated back to southeastern Europe. No East Germanic language is spoken today, and the only written East Germanic language that survives is Gothic. North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages of Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic (but not Finnish, which is related to Hungarian and Estonian and is not an Indo-European language). West Germanic is the ancestor of modern German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, and English. Old English (500-1100 AD) CLICK HERE TO SEE A MAP OF ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles (whose name is the source of the words England and English), Saxons, and Jutes, began to settle in the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. They spoke a mutually intelligible language, similar to modern Frisian - the language of the northeastern region of the Netherlands - that is called Old English. Four major dialects of Old English emerged, Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West Saxon in the south and west, and Kentish in the Southeast. These invaders pushed the original, Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of what is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving behind a few Celtic words. These Celtic languages survive today in the Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland and in Welsh. Cornish, unfortunately, is, in linguistic terms, now a dead language. (The last native Cornish speaker died in 1777) Also influencing English at this time were the Vikings. Norse invasions and settlement, beginning around 850, brought many North Germanic words into the language, particularly in the north of England. Some examples are dream, which had meant 'joy' until the Vikings imparted its current meaning on it from the Scandinavian cognate draumr, and skirt, which continues to live alongside its native English cognate shirt. The majority of words in modern English come from foreign, not Old English roots. In fact, only about one sixth of the known Old English words have descendants surviving today. But this is deceptive; Old English is much more important than these statistics would indicate. About half of the most commonly used words in modern English have Old English roots. Words like be, water, and strong, for example, derive from Old English roots. Old English, whose best known surviving example is the poem Beowulf, lasted until about 1100. Shortly after the most important event in the development and history of the English language, the Norman Conquest. The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500) William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. The new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman. The Normans were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comes from "Norseman") and Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic influences in addition to the basic Latin roots. Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on the English language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the seventh century (ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, and mass came into the language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of Romance (Anglo-Norman) words. The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal terms, such as indict, jury , and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic roots and words frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances. Sometimes French words replaced Old English words; crime replaced firen and uncle replaced eam. Other times, French and Old English components combined to form a new word, as the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman. Other times, two different words with roughly the same meaning survive into modern English. Thus we have the Germanic doom and the French judgment, or wish and desire. It is useful to compare various versions of a familiar text to see the differences between Old, Middle, and Modern English. Take for instance this Old English (c. 1000) sample: Fder ure u e eart on heofonum si in nama gehalgod tobecume in rice gewure in willa on eoran swa swa on heofonum urne gedghwamlican hlaf syle us to dg and forgyf us ure gyltas swa swa we forgyfa urum gyltendum and ne geld u us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele solice. Rendered in Middle English (Wyclif, 1384), the same text is recognizable to the modern eye: Oure fadir at art in heuenes halwid be i name; i reume or kyngdom come to be. Be i wille don in here as it is doun in heuene. yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred. And foryeue to us oure dettis at is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris at is to men at han synned in us. And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl. Finally, in Early Modern English (King James Version, 1611) the same text is completely intelligible: Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heauen. Giue us this day our daily bread. And forgiue us our debts as we forgiue our debters. And lead us not into temptation, but deliuer us from euill. Amen. For a lengthier comparison of the three stages in the development of English click here! In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of France. This began a process where the Norman nobles of England became increasingly estranged from their French cousins. England became the chief concern of the nobility, rather than their estates in France, and consequently the nobility adopted a modified English as their native tongue. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed about one third of the English population. And as a result of this the labouring and merchant classes grew in economic and social importance, and along with them English increased in importance compared to Anglo-Norman. This mixture of the two languages came to be known as Middle English. The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Unlike Old English, Middle English can be read, albeit with difficulty, by modern English-speaking people. By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners was largely over. In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which made English the language of the courts and it began to be used in Parliament. The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise of Modern English.

       看看是不是这篇A Brief History of the English Language English is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. This broad family includes most of the European languages spoken today. The Indo-European family includes several major branches: Latin and the modern Romance languages (French etc.); the Germanic languages (English, German, Swedish etc.); the Indo-Iranian languages (Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit etc.); the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish, Czech etc.); the Baltic languages of Latvian and Lithuanian; the Celtic languages (Welsh, Irish Gaelic etc.); Greek. The influence of the original Indo-European language can be seen today, even though no written record of it exists. The word for father, for example, is vater in German, pater in Latin, and pitr in Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in different languages that share the same root. Of these branches of the Indo-European family, two are, as far as the study of the development of English is concerned, of paramount importance, the Germanic and the Romance (called that because the Romance languages derive from Latin, the language of ancient Rome). English is a member of the Germanic group of languages. It is believed that this group began as a common language in the Elbe river region about 3,000 years ago. By the second century BC, this Common Germanic language had split into three distinct sub-groups:East Germanic was spoken by peoples who migrated back to southeastern Europe. No East Germanic language is spoken today, and the only written East Germanic language that survives is Gothic. North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages of Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic (but not Finnish, which is related to Hungarian and Estonian and is not an Indo-European language). West Germanic is the ancestor of modern German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, and English. Old English (500-1100 AD) CLICK HERE TO SEE A MAP OF ANGLO-SAXON ENGLANDWest Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles (whose name is the source of the words England and English), Saxons, and Jutes, began to settle in the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. They spoke a mutually intelligible language, similar to modern Frisian - the language of the northeastern region of the Netherlands - that is called Old English. Four major dialects of Old English emerged, Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West Saxon in the south and west, and Kentish in the Southeast. These invaders pushed the original, Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of what is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving behind a few Celtic words. These Celtic languages survive today in the Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland and in Welsh. Cornish, unfortunately, is, in linguistic terms, now a dead language. (The last native Cornish speaker died in 1777) Also influencing English at this time were the Vikings. Norse invasions and settlement, beginning around 850, brought many North Germanic words into the language, particularly in the north of England. Some examples are dream, which had meant 'joy' until the Vikings imparted its current meaning on it from the Scandinavian cognate draumr, and skirt, which continues to live alongside its native English cognate shirt.The majority of words in modern English come from foreign, not Old English roots. In fact, only about one sixth of the known Old English words have descendants surviving today. But this is deceptive; Old English is much more important than these statistics would indicate. About half of the most commonly used words in modern English have Old English roots. Words like be, water, and strong, for example, derive from Old English roots.Old English, whose best known surviving example is the poem Beowulf, lasted until about 1100. Shortly after the most important event in the development and history of the English language, the Norman Conquest.

        The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500) William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. The new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman. The Normans were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comes from "Norseman") and Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic influences in addition to the basic Latin roots. Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on the English language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the seventh century (ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, and mass came into the language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of Romance (Anglo-Norman) words.The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal terms, such as indict, jury , and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic roots and words frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances.Sometimes French words replaced Old English words; crime replaced firen and uncle replaced eam. Other times, French and Old English components combined to form a new word, as the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman. Other times, two different words with roughly the same meaning survive into modern English. Thus we have the Germanic doom and the French judgment, or wish and desire.It is useful to compare various versions of a familiar text to see the differences between Old, Middle, and Modern English. Take for instance this Old English (c. 1000) sample:F?0?3der ure ?0?6u ?0?6e eart on heofonum

       si ?0?6in nama gehalgod tobecume ?0?6in rice gewur?0?6e ?0?6in willa on eor?0?8an swa swa on heofonum

       urne ged?0?3ghwamlican hlaf syle us to d?0?3g

       and forgyf us ure gyltas swa swa we forgyfa?0?8 urum gyltendum

       and ne gel?0?3d ?0?6u us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele so?0?6lice. Rendered in Middle English (Wyclif, 1384), the same text is recognizable to the modern eye:Oure fadir ?0?6at art in heuenes halwid be ?0?6i name;

0?6i reume or kyngdom come to be. Be ?0?6i wille don in her?0?6e as it is doun in heuene.

       yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred.

       And foryeue to us oure dettis ?0?6at is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris ?0?6at is to men ?0?6at han synned in us.

       And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl. Finally, in Early Modern English (King James Version, 1611) the same text is completely intelligible: Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy name.

       Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heauen.

       Giue us this day our daily bread.

       And forgiue us our debts as we forgiue our debters.

       And lead us not into temptation, but deliuer us from euill. Amen. For a lengthier comparison of the three stages in the development of English click here!In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of France. This began a process where the Norman nobles of England became increasingly estranged from their French cousins. England became the chief concern of the nobility, rather than their estates in France, and consequently the nobility adopted a modified English as their native tongue. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed about one third of the English population. And as a result of this the labouring and merchant classes grew in economic and social importance, and along with them English increased in importance compared to Anglo-Norman. This mixture of the two languages came to be known as Middle English. The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Unlike Old English, Middle English can be read, albeit with difficulty, by modern English-speaking people.By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners was largely over. In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which made English the language of the courts and it began to be used in Parliament.The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise of Modern English.

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